In describing this traditional masculinity, David and Brannon (1976) suggested that this ideology is dictated by four main rules: men should not be feminine men must be respected and admired men should never show fear and men should seek out risk and adventure. In the U.S., there is a dominant traditional masculinity ideology rooted in a subjective and dated image of what men should and should not be ( Pleck, 1995). Furthermore, several scholars have illustrated how these two constructs vary over time and cross-culturally (e.g., Mead, 1949 Roy, 2001). More specifically, scholars have noted that the dominant group typically defines what are appropriate behaviors for a given gender, and that subordination and marginalization of those who violate these norms are used to sustain the constructs ( Connell, 2005). That is, social groups define what is and is not masculine and feminine. However, most of the characteristics that are associated with masculinity and femininity are socially constructed. These terms are often associated with physical and biological differences between men and women (e.g., body shape and size Lippa, 1983, 2005). Masculinity and femininity are descriptors commonly used in everyday language. associate with masculinity and femininity among gay men and how they feel masculine ideals affect them. Thus, this exploratory study sought to appraise what gay men in the U.S. Although many scholars have written about the topic (e.g., Humphries, 1985 Kleinberg, 1978/1989 Levine, 1992 Nardi, 2000) and dissertations have offered tentative results (e.g., Ervin, 2003 Sánchez, 2005 Shepard, 2001), empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals are hard to find. While many gay men struggle with these issues, scientific research on the effect of masculine ideals on gay men is lacking. Yet, the reality is that traditional masculine ideals affect how gay men feel about themselves ( Szymanski & Carr, 2008) and their same-sex relationships ( Wester, Pionke, & Vogel, 2005). These real-life examples and the suggestion that masculine ideals significantly affect many gay men may surprise people who are not intimately familiar with the gay community-a community that is often perceived as accepting of individual differences. “A site for guys that like sports, can change their own car’s oil, or just don’t fit the effeminate stereotype” (text taken from Website’s homepage)-offered an on-line discussion area where many posting revered traditional masculine ideals and expressed hostility towards effeminate gay men (see Clarkson, 2006). Frontiers Magazine-a Southern California gay entertainment magazine-featured a cover story entitled “Butch is Back,” which explored how the repackaging of a Los Angeles leather-themed gay bar was redefining masculine ideals in the local gay community ( Cullinane, 2007).
For instance, Bergling (2001) reported on gay men who rigidly enact traditional masculine ideals and experience a “fear” of effeminate gay men. The topic of how and why gay men are affected by this repeatedly appears within the popular gay press (e.g., Alvear, 2004 Cummings, 1999 Rice, 2006) and sparks controversy within the gay community.
Societal conceptions of masculinity affect the self-image and relationships of many gay men in the United States (U.S.). Reported Effects of Masculine Ideals on Gay Men While research on gay men’s experience with masculinity continues, psychologists should consider the possible influence of traditional masculine ideals when conceptualizing their gay male clients. Additionally, more adverse versus positive effects on self-image and same-sex romantic relationships were reported including difficulty being emotional and affectionate, pressure to be physically attractive, and pressure to appear masculine in order to be accepted by society and to be seen as desirable by other gay men. Findings supported previous reports that perceptions of gender roles among gay men appear based on masculine and feminine stereotypes. Written responses were collected from 547 self-identified gay men in the U.S.
This exploratory study used consensual qualitative research methodology ( Hill et al., 2005) to analyze what gay men associate with masculinity and femininity, how they feel masculine ideals affect their self-image, and how masculine ideals affect their same-sex relationships.